The adaptive immune system is important for fighting viral infections. The main components of the adaptive immune system are B-lymphocytes, CD4 and CD8 T-lymphocytes. In this article we reviewed publications dealing with humoral and cellular responses in humans to SARS-CoV-2 infection. The COVID-19 disease in question has resulted in high morbidity and mortality worldwide in a short period of time. Scientific advances in understanding the new disease have been extraordinarily rapid, a testament to the work of the international scientific community, both in academia and industry, under extremely stressful conditions. In this article we will look at the current understanding of adaptive immunity responses in COVID-19 and vaccination. It should be borne in mind that the immune response contributes not only to host protection but also to immunopathology. By obtaining answers to questions concerning the adaptive immune response to SARS-CoV-2, the practical challenges facing health professionals and society can be addressed.

1. Kostinov M. P., Markelova E. V., Svitich O. A., Polishchuk V. B. Immunnye mekhanizmy SARS-CoV-2 i potencial‘nye preparaty dlya profilaktiki i lecheniya COVID-19. Pul‘monologiya. – 2020. – T. 30. – № 5. – S. 700–708.

2. Smirnov V. S., Totolyan A. A. Vrozhdennyj immunitet pri koronavirusnoj infekcii // Infekciya i immunitet. – 2020. – T. 10. – № 2. – S. 259–268.

3. Cygankov A. M., Yanchenko V. V. Zashchitnye mekhanizmy cheloveka protiv virusov, vyzyvayushchih ostrye respiratornye infekcii. Klinicheskaya infektologiya i parazitologiya. – 2021. – T. 10. – № 1. – S. 88–103.

4. Harchenko E. P. Koronavirus SARS-CoV-2: slozhnosti patogeneza, poiski vakcin i budushchie pandemii // Epidemiologiya i Vakcinoprofilaktika. – 2020. – T. 19. – № 3. – S. 4–20.

5. Braun J. et al. SARS-CoV-2-reactive T cells in healthy donors and patients with COVID-19 // Nature. – 2020. – T. 587. – № 7833. – R. 270–274.

6. Carsetti R. et al. Different Innate and Adaptive Immune Responses to SARS-CoV-2 Infection of Asymptomatic, Mild, and Severe Cases // Frontiers in immunology. – 2020. – T. 11. – R. 33–65.

7. Dan J. M. et al. Immunological memory to SARS-CoV-2 assessed for up to 8 months after infection // Science. – 2021. – T. 371. – № 6529. – R. 40–63.

8. Diao B. et al. Reduction and functional exhaustion of T cells in patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) // Frontiers in immunology. – 2020. – T. 11. – S R. 82–87.

9. Dorp L. et al. No evidence for increased transmissibility from recurrent mutations in SARS-CoV-2 // Nature communications. – 2020. – T. 11. – № 1. – R. 1–8.

10. Edridge A. W. D. et al. Seasonal coronavirus protective immunity is short-lasting // Nature medicine. – 2020. – T. 26. – № 11. – R. 1691–1693.

11. Gaebler C. et al. Evolution of antibody immunity to SARS-CoV-2 // Nature. – 2021. – № 1. – R. 1–6.

12. Gutierrez L., Beckford J., Alachkar H. Deciphering the TKR Repertoire to Solve the COVID-19 Mystery // Trends in Pharmacological Sciences. – 2020. – T. 41. – № 8. – R. 518–530.

13. Habel J. R. et al. Suboptimal SARS-CoV-2 – specific CD8+ T cell response associated with the prominent HLA-A* 02: 01 phenotype // Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. – 2020. – T. 117. – № 39. – R. 24384–24391.

14. Hartenian E. et al. The molecular virology of Coronaviruses // Journal of Biological Chemistry. – 2020. – T. 295. – № 37. – R. 12910–12934.

15. Hartley G. E. et al. Rapid generation of durable B cell memory to SARS-CoV-2 spike and nucleocapsid proteins in COVID-19 and convalescence // Science Immunology. – 2020. – T. 5. – № 54. R. 88–91.

16. Jarjour N. N., Masopust D., Jameson S. C. T cell memory: Understanding COVID-19 // Immunity. – 2021. – T. 54. – № 1. – R. 14–23.

17. Krammer F. SARS-CoV-2 vaccines in development // Nature. – 2020. – T. 586. – №. 7830. – R. 516–527.

18. Kumar B. V., Connors T. J., Farber D. L. Human T cell development, localization, and function throughout life // Immunity. – 2018. – T. 48. – № 2. – R. 202–213.

19. Li G. et al. Coronavirus infections and immune res-ponses // Journal of medical virology. – 2020. – T. 92. – № 4. – R. 424–432.

20. Lin M. et al. Association of HLA class I with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus infection // BMC Medical Genetics. – 2003. – T. 4. – № 1. – R. 1–7.

21. Liu J. et al. Longitudinal characteristics of lymphocyte responses and cytokine profiles in the peripheral blood of SARS-CoV-2 infected patients // EBioMedicine. – 2020. – T. 55. –R. 1027–1063.

22. Maggi E., Canonica G. W., Moretta L. COVID-19: Unanswered Questions on Immune Response and Pathogenesis // The Journal of allergy and clinical immunology. – 2020. – T. 146. – № 1. – R. 18–22.

23. Mathew D. et al. Deep immune profiling of COVID-19 patients reveals distinct immunotypes with therapeutic implications // Science. – 2020. – T. 369. – № 6508. – R. 5–11.

24. Melenotte C. et al. Immune responses during COVID-19 infection // OncoImmunology. – 2020. – T. 9. – № 1. – R. 1807–1836.

25. Minervina A. A. et al. Longitudinal high-throughput TKR repertoire profiling reveals the dynamics of T-cell memory formation after mild COVID-19 infection // Elife. – 2021. – T. 10. – R. 635–702.

26. Mustapha J. O. et al. Understanding the implications of SARS-CoV-2 re-infections on immune response milieu, laboratory tests and control measures against COVID-19 // Heliyon. – 2021. – R. 51–59.

27. Ng K. W. et al. Preexisting and de novo humoral immunity to SARS-CoV-2 in humans // Science. – 2020. – T. 370. – № 6522. – R. 1339–1343.

28. Nguyen A. et al. Human leukocyte antigen susceptibility map for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 // Journal of virology. – 2020. – T. 94. – № 13. – R. 510–520.

29. Noorimotlagh Z. et al. Immune and bioinformatics identification of T cell and B cell epitopes in the protein structure of SARS-CoV-2: A systematic review // International immunopharmacology. – 2020. – T. 86. – P. 106–122.

30. Peng Y. et al. Broad and strong memory CD4+ and CD8+ T cells induced by SARS-CoV-2 in UK convalescent individuals following COVID-19 // Nature immunology. – 2020. – T. 21. – № 11. – R. 1336–1345.

31. Rodda L. B. et al. Functional SARS-CoV-2-specific immune memory persists after mild COVID-19 // Cell. – 2021. – T. 184. – № 1. – R. 169–183.

32. Rodriguez-Morales A. J. et al. Clinical, laboratory and imaging features of COVID-19: A systematic review and meta-analysis // Travel medicine and infectious disease. – 2020. – T. 34. – S. 1016–1023.

33. Saini S. K. et al. SARS-CoV-2 genome-wide T cell epitope mapping reveals immunodominance and substantial CD8+ T cell activation in COVID-19 patients // Science Immunology. – 2021. – T. 6. – № 58. – R. 20–34.

34. Schulien I. et al. Characterization of pre-existing and induced SARS-CoV-2-specific CD8+ T cells // Nature medicine. – 2021. – T. 27. – № 1. – R. 78–85.

35. Sekine T. et al. Robust T cell immunity in convalescent individuals with asymptomatic or mild COVID-19 // Cell. – 2020. – T. 183. – № 1. – R. 158–168.

36. Sette A., Crotty S. Adaptive immunity to SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 // Cell. – 2021. – T. 184. – № 4. – R. 861–880.

37. Sunil K. S. et al. SARS-CoV-2 genome-wide T cell epitope mapping reveals immunodominance and substantial CD8+ T cell activation in COVID-19 patients. // Science Immunology. – 2021. – T. 58. – № 6. – R. 1–22.

38. Sterlin D. et al. IgA dominates the early neutralizing antibody response to SARS-CoV-2 // Science translational medicine. – 2021. – T. 13. – № 577. – R. 22–32.

39. Tay M. Z. et al. The trinity of COVID-19: immunity, inflammation and intervention // Nature Reviews Immunology. – 2020. – T. 20. – № 6. – R. 363–374.

40. Wang Z. et al. Exposure to SARS-CoV-2 generates T-cell memory in the absence of a detectable viral infection // Nature Communications. – 2021. – T. 12. – № 1. – R. 1–8.